Theory/Model: TOE
- Description
- Diagram
- Constructs
- Contexts
- Indicators by construct
Technology-organization-environment Framework
The Technology, Organization, and Environment (TOE) Framework was developed by Tornatzky & Fleischer (1990), and is consistent with the Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers, 1983). The TOE Framework proves to be useful for studying the adoption and assimilation of different types of information technology innovation (Oliveira & Martins, 2010).
The TOE is a useful and adaptive framework to explain adoption behavior in relation to three types of technological innovations, namely applied innovations for technical tasks, innovations for business administration, and innovations embedded in the core business processes of an organization (Ramdani & Kawalek, 2007; Swanson, 1994).
The TOE Framework identifies three aspects of an organization's context that influence the process of adopting and implementing a technological innovation, namely, technological context, organizational context and external environmental context.
References: (Oliveira & Martins, 2010; Ramdani & Kawalek, 2007; Rogers, 1983; Swanson, 1994; Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990)
Note: This diagram only contains the constructs proposed in the original theory/model.
Note: This list contains not only the constructs proposed in the original theory/model but also the constructs proposed by the authors that applied the theory/model in a particular context.
Note: This list contains the contexts were the theory/model was used/applied.
| Not Specified |
| e-Business |
Note 1: This list contains not only the constructs proposed in the original theory/model but also the constructs proposed by the authors that applied the theory/model in a particular context.
Note 2: Are only presented the constructs that are described in the literature in terms of indicators.
Note 2: Are only presented the constructs that are described in the literature in terms of indicators.
- Construct: Competitive Pressure
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Percentage of competitors in your industry that have conducted Internet-based selling. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) Percentage of competitors in your industry that have conducted Internet-based procurement and coordination. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) Percentage of competitors in your industry that have conducted Internet-based services. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006)
- Construct: Consumer Willingness
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) % of the population using online shopping in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of the population using online banking in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of the population willing to use credit card payment for online shopping in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of the population willing to use e-cash payment for online shopping in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) Average annual online spending per capita in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: E-business Know-How
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Do the executives in this establishment have sufficient know-how for implementing online procurement? Direct Answer e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) Do the executives in this establishment have sufficient know-how for implementing online selling? Direct Answer e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: E-business Value (Impact on Commerce)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Sales increased. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Sales area widened. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Customer service improved. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) International sales increased. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: E-business Value (Impact on Coordination)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Transaction costs with business partners decreased. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Coordination with business partners or suppliers improved. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: E-business Value (Impact on Internal Efficiency)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Internal process more efficient. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Staff productivity increased. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: Environment Context (Competition Intensity)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Degree affected by competitors in the local market. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Degree affected by competitors nationwide. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Degree affected by competitors worldwide. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: Environment Context (Competitive Pressure)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) % of domestic establishments adopting Web marketing or online selling in each industry and each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of domestic establishments adopting online procurement in each industry and each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of European establishments adopting Web marketing or online selling in each industry. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of European establishments adopting online procurement in each industry. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: Environment Context (Regulatory Environment)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Government provided incentive. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Required for government purchase. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Business laws support electronic business. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Legal protection for consumer purchase on the Internet. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: External Task Environment
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Not Specified Not Specified Not Specified
- Construct: IT Infrastructure
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) If the establishment uses EDI. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) If the establishment has access to the Internet. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) If the establishment has an Intranet. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) If the establishment uses e-mail. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) If the establishment uses groupware tools. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) If the establishment has video-conferencing. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: Internet Penetration
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) % of the population using the Internet in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of the population using email in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of households with PCs in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of households with Internet access in each country. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: Internet Skills
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) % of employees who can send emails to internal addresses. Scale 1 to 3, Majority to No one e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of employees who can send emails to external addresses. Scale 1 to 3, Majority to No one e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of employees who can browse Internet sites. Scale 1 to 3, Majority to No one e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of employees who can browse Intranet sites. Scale 1 to 3, Majority to No one e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003) % of employees who can communicate via video-conferencing. Scale 1 to 3, Majority to No one e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Xu, 2003)
- Construct: Organization
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Not Specified Not Specified Not Specified
- Construct: Organization Context (Financial Resources)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) IT spending, as percentage of total revenue. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Web-based spending, as percentage of total revenue. Percentage e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: Organization Context (Firm Size)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Number of employees (log transformed). Direct Answer e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: Organization Context (Global Scope)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Multi-establishment. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Establishment outside of country. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Headquarters located outside of country. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Percent of sales from outside country. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Percent of purchase from outside country. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)
- Construct: Organization Size
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Number of employees (log transformed). Direct Answer e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006)
- Construct: Partner Readiness
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) The extent to which downstream customers have e-business systems ready to support Internet-based selling. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) The extent to which upstream partners have e-business systems ready to support Internet-based procurement. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) The extent to which e-business systems owned by trading partners are interoperable with yours. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006)
- Construct: Technology
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Not Specified Not Specified Not Specified
- Construct: Technology Competence
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) IT infrastructure: the strength of existing IT infrastructure, as measured by related technologies that your company has in place, including electronic data interchange (EDI), intranet, extranet, local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN). Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) Internet skills: The extent to which the majority of your employees are capable of using the following applications: Web browser, intranet, online order processing. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006) Skill development – Has your company done the following to help employees develop e-business skills (a) in-house training? (b) participating in IT training such as courses and seminars by third parties? (c) legitimizing certain work time for IT learning/training? (d) establishing self-learning or e-learning programs? (e) recruiting staff with special IT skills? Selection e-Business (Zhu, Dong, Xu, & Kraemer, 2006)
- Construct: Technology Context (Technology Readiness)
Indicator Scale Context Reference(s) Technologies in use, measured by the number of items the establishment has in the following list: Use of e-mail; Web site accessible by public; Use of intranet; Use of extranet; Use of electronic data interchange (EDI); Use of electronic fund transfer; Use of call center; Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Front-end functionality, measured by the number of items the establishment has in the following list: Web site supports online services (filing applications, claims); Web site supports online transactions (payment, transfer); Web site supports account management; Web site provides online tools such as research, planning. Yes or No e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Extent Web applications electronically integrated with back-office systems. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004) Extent company databeses electronically integrated with suppliers and partners. Likert 1-5 e-Business (Zhu, Kraemer, & Dedrick, 2004)